Health glossary

An adenoma is a benign (non-cancerous) growth that forms in gland-like tissue, including the breast. It is not cancer and does not spread to other parts of the body, though it may be checked to confirm what it is.

Adjuvant therapy is additional treatment given after the primary treatment, usually surgery, to destroy any cancer cells that may remain and reduce the risk of recurrence. It can include chemotherapy, radiation, hormone therapy, or targeted drugs.

Anemia is a condition in which you do not have enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin to carry oxygen to your body's tissues. It can leave you feeling tired, weak, or short of breath, and in women it is often linked to blood loss or low iron.

Angiography is an imaging technique that uses a special dye and X-rays or other scans to make blood vessels visible. It helps doctors see narrowing, blockages, aneurysms, or other vessel problems that might not show up otherwise.

An aortic aneurysm is a bulge or balloon-like swelling in the wall of the aorta, the large artery that carries blood from your heart to the rest of your body. It develops where the vessel wall has weakened, and it often causes no symptoms until it grows large.

An aromatase inhibitor is a type of medication that blocks the enzyme aromatase, which the body uses to make estrogen. By lowering estrogen levels, it slows or stops the growth of breast cancers that depend on estrogen to grow, and is used mainly after menopause.

Atherosclerosis is the slow buildup of fatty deposits, called plaque, inside the walls of your arteries. Over time this narrows and stiffens the vessels, reducing blood flow and raising the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other vascular problems.

Atypical ductal hyperplasia is a benign condition in which an unusual number of slightly abnormal cells build up inside a breast milk duct. It is not cancer, but it signals a higher-than-average risk of developing breast cancer later, so it is watched closely.

The axilla is the medical term for the armpit. It contains lymph nodes, blood vessels, and nerves, and because breast tissue drains into the lymph nodes here, the axilla is an important area when evaluating and treating breast cancer.

Axillary dissection is a surgical procedure that removes a group of lymph nodes from the armpit. It is used in breast cancer care to find out whether cancer has spread to the nodes and to remove affected nodes, which helps guide staging and treatment.

Benign describes a growth or condition that is not cancerous. A benign lump does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body, which makes it far less dangerous than a malignant, or cancerous, growth.

A bilateral mastectomy is the surgical removal of both breasts. It may be done to treat cancer present in both breasts, or as a preventive step for women at very high risk, such as those carrying a BRCA gene mutation.

A biopsy is a procedure that removes a small piece of tissue or a few cells from your body so a specialist can look at them under a microscope. It is the most reliable way to find out whether an area of concern is harmless or something that needs treatment.

Bisphosphonates are a family of medications used to slow bone loss in conditions like osteoporosis. They work by reducing the activity of the cells that break down bone, helping your skeleton hold on to more of its strength and lowering the chance of fractures.

Bone density describes how much mineral, mainly calcium, is packed into a given amount of bone. Higher density generally means stronger bones that are less likely to break, while lower density signals that bones have become more fragile.

Bone marrow is the soft, spongy tissue found inside many of your bones. It is the body's blood-cell factory, producing the red cells that carry oxygen, the white cells that fight infection, and the platelets that help your blood clot.

Bone remodeling is the continuous process in which your body breaks down old bone tissue and replaces it with new tissue. This ongoing renewal keeps your skeleton strong, repairs tiny damage, and helps regulate the supply of minerals like calcium in your blood.

A bone scan is an imaging test that uses a small amount of radioactive tracer to reveal areas where bone is unusually active. It can detect changes such as healing fractures, infection, or the spread of cancer, often earlier than ordinary X-rays.

Brachytherapy is a type of radiation therapy in which a sealed radioactive source is placed directly inside or very close to the area being treated. This allows a focused dose to reach the target while limiting the radiation that reaches surrounding healthy tissue.

A BRCA gene mutation is an inherited change in one of two genes, BRCA1 or BRCA2, that normally help protect against cancer. When one of these genes is altered, a person's lifetime risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer is higher than average.

Breast cancer is a disease in which cells in the breast grow out of control and form a tumor. It is one of the most common cancers in women, and when found early it is also one of the most treatable, with many effective options available today.

Breast density describes the proportion of fibrous and glandular tissue compared with fatty tissue in your breasts, as seen on a mammogram. Denser breasts have more of the firmer tissue, which is both a normal variation and a factor that can affect screening.

Breast MRI is an imaging test that uses powerful magnets and radio waves, rather than X-rays, to create detailed pictures of the breast. It is often used alongside mammography for women at higher risk or when more information is needed about a particular finding.

Breast reconstruction is surgery to rebuild the shape of a breast after a mastectomy or other breast surgery. It can be done using implants, your own tissue, or a combination, and may take place at the same time as the original surgery or later on.

A breast self-exam is a method of checking your own breasts for lumps, changes in size or shape, or other differences. By looking and feeling on a regular basis, you build a sense of what is normal for you, which makes it easier to notice when something seems new or unusual.

CA-125 is a protein that can be measured in the blood. Higher levels are sometimes linked with ovarian cancer, but many ordinary conditions can raise it too. Because of that, the test is used as one piece of information among many, often to monitor a known condition rather than to screen healthy women.

Calcifications are small deposits of calcium that form in breast tissue and appear as bright white flecks on a mammogram. Most are completely harmless and very common, especially as you get older. Occasionally their size, shape, or pattern prompts a closer look to make sure nothing concerning is developing.

Calcium is a mineral your body needs to build and maintain strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in how muscles contract, how nerves send signals, and how blood clots. When you do not get enough, your body draws calcium from your bones, which over time can leave them weaker.

Carcinoma is a type of cancer that starts in epithelial cells, the cells that line the skin, organs, and internal passages of the body. Most breast, cervical, lung, and colon cancers are carcinomas. The word describes where the cancer begins rather than how serious it is, which depends on many other factors.

The carpal tunnel is a narrow channel in the wrist through which a major nerve and several tendons pass. When the tunnel narrows or the tissues swell, the nerve gets squeezed, leading to numbness, tingling, weakness, or pain in the hand and fingers, a condition known as carpal tunnel syndrome.

A catheter is a thin, flexible tube that can be guided into a blood vessel, the bladder, or another part of the body. Depending on its purpose, it can deliver medicine or contrast dye, drain fluid, or carry tiny instruments to a precise location, often without the need for major surgery.

Cervical cancer develops in the cells of the cervix, the narrow lower end of the uterus that opens into the vagina. It is most often caused by long-lasting infection with certain types of human papillomavirus. Because it usually develops slowly from detectable changes, regular screening makes it one of the most preventable cancers.

Chemoprevention is the use of medicines to reduce the risk of developing cancer in the first place, rather than to treat cancer that already exists. For breast cancer, certain drugs that block estrogen's effects may lower risk in women who face a higher-than-average chance of the disease.

Chemotherapy uses powerful medicines to kill cancer cells or stop them from dividing. Because the drugs travel through the bloodstream, they can reach cancer cells throughout the body. This makes chemotherapy useful when there is a chance cancer cells have spread beyond the original site, and it is often combined with other treatments.

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in your blood and every cell of your body. You need some of it to build cells and make hormones. But when there is too much of certain types, it can build up in artery walls, narrowing them and raising the risk of heart disease and stroke.

A clinical breast exam is a physical examination of the breasts and underarm area performed by a trained health professional. Using their hands and eyes, they check for lumps, changes in shape or skin, and other findings, complementing what you notice yourself and what a mammogram can reveal.

A clinical trial is a research study in which people volunteer to help test a new treatment, screening method, or way of managing a condition. Trials follow strict rules to measure whether something is safe and effective, and they are how nearly every treatment in use today was proven to work.

Colposcopy is a procedure in which a doctor uses a lighted magnifying instrument to examine the cervix, vagina, and vulva closely. It is often done after a Pap smear or HPV test shows changes, so any abnormal-looking areas can be seen clearly and, if needed, sampled for further testing.

Contralateral simply means "on the other side." In breast health, it often refers to the breast opposite the one affected by a condition, such as the contralateral breast when cancer has been found on one side. It is a precise way for your care team to describe location.

A contrast agent is a substance given before or during an imaging test that makes specific organs, blood vessels, or tissues stand out more clearly. By temporarily changing how an area absorbs X-rays or responds to magnetic fields, it helps radiologists see details that might otherwise be hard to make out.

A core needle biopsy uses a hollow needle to remove one or more small cylinders, or cores, of tissue from an area of concern. The samples are larger than those from a fine needle, giving the laboratory enough tissue to determine whether the area is benign or needs further attention.

A CT scan, short for computed tomography, takes a series of X-ray images from many angles and uses a computer to combine them into detailed cross-sectional pictures. These "slices" let your care team see bones, organs, blood vessels, and soft tissues with far more detail than a single X-ray can provide.

A cyst is a closed, sac-like pocket of tissue that is usually filled with fluid. Cysts are very common in the breast, especially before menopause, and the great majority are benign. They can sometimes be felt as a smooth, movable lump and are easily identified with imaging such as ultrasound.

DCIS stands for ductal carcinoma in situ, the earliest form of breast cancer. The abnormal cells are still contained within a milk duct and have not spread into surrounding breast tissue. Because it is caught so early, DCIS is highly treatable and often found through screening mammography before it can be felt.

Dense breast tissue means the breast has more glandular and fibrous tissue relative to fat. It is common, especially in younger women, and is identified on a mammogram, not by how the breast feels. Dense tissue appears white on a mammogram, the same color as many abnormalities, which can make them harder to spot.

A DEXA scan, short for dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, is a quick, painless test that measures bone mineral density. Using a very low dose of X-rays, it helps your care team assess bone strength, diagnose osteoporosis or osteopenia, and estimate the risk of future fractures, often by scanning the hip and spine.

Doppler ultrasound is a special form of ultrasound that measures the movement of blood through vessels. By detecting how sound waves change as they bounce off moving blood cells, it can show the direction and speed of blood flow, helping detect narrowed or blocked vessels without any needles or radiation.

Ductal carcinoma is breast cancer that starts in the cells lining the milk ducts, the small channels that carry milk to the nipple. It is the most common type of breast cancer. When the cells remain inside the duct it is called in situ; when they grow beyond the duct wall it is called invasive.

Early detection means identifying a disease — most often cancer — at an initial stage, before symptoms develop or the condition has had a chance to spread. Catching a problem early typically means simpler treatment, less aggressive intervention, and significantly higher survival rates.

An echocardiogram is an ultrasound scan of the heart that uses sound waves to create moving images of the heart's chambers, valves, and surrounding structures. It allows doctors to assess how well your heart is pumping blood and to detect problems with its size, shape, or function.

An embolism occurs when a clot, air bubble, fat droplet, or other material lodges in a blood vessel and blocks blood flow to the tissue beyond. Depending on where it occurs, an embolism can affect the lungs, brain, heart, or limbs, and it can range from minor to life-threatening.

Endometrial cancer is a malignancy that begins in the endometrium, the tissue that lines the inside of the uterus. It is the most common cancer of the female reproductive organs in the United States, and it is often caught at an early stage because it frequently causes abnormal uterine bleeding that prompts women to seek evaluation.

Estrogen is a group of hormones produced mainly by the ovaries that drive the development of female sexual characteristics, regulate the menstrual cycle, support bone density, and influence the cardiovascular system and brain. It is not one single molecule but a family of related compounds, with estradiol being the most potent and prevalent during the reproductive years.

An estrogen receptor (ER) is a protein found inside certain cells that binds to estrogen and carries its signal into the cell's nucleus, triggering changes in gene activity. In breast cancer, tumors that contain these receptors are called ER-positive and tend to grow in response to estrogen — a characteristic that guides treatment decisions.

A false positive is a screening or diagnostic test result that indicates the presence of a condition — such as cancer — when the person does not actually have that condition. False positives lead to additional testing or procedures to rule out disease, which can cause anxiety but are a recognized and manageable part of screening programs.

A fibroadenoma is a noncancerous (benign) breast lump composed of a mixture of glandular and fibrous connective tissue. It is the most common benign breast tumor, particularly in women in their 20s and 30s, and typically feels like a smooth, firm, rubbery lump that moves easily under the skin.

Fibrocystic breasts is a benign condition in which breast tissue contains an excess of fibrous connective tissue and fluid-filled cysts, giving the breasts a lumpy, uneven texture. It is extremely common — affecting more than half of women at some point in their lives — and is associated with hormonal fluctuations rather than disease.

Fibroids — medically known as uterine leiomyomas — are noncancerous tumors made of smooth muscle and connective tissue that grow in or around the uterus. They are extremely common, affecting up to 80 percent of women by age 50, and can range from pea-sized to large enough to distort the uterus. Many women with fibroids have no symptoms; others experience heavy periods, pelvic pressure, or fertility challenges.

Fine needle aspiration (FNA) is a type of biopsy in which a thin, hollow needle is inserted into a lump or mass to withdraw a small sample of cells or fluid. The sample is then examined under a microscope by a pathologist to determine whether the tissue is benign, cancerous, or indeterminate. FNA is fast, requires no incision, and is usually performed in an outpatient setting.

Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique that uses a continuous X-ray beam to produce real-time, moving images of internal structures. Unlike a standard X-ray, which captures a single still image, fluoroscopy acts like an X-ray "movie," allowing physicians to watch organs and instruments move in real time — particularly useful during procedures involving catheters, contrast agents, or swallowing studies.

A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of DNA that makes up a gene, altering or disrupting the instructions that gene carries. Mutations can be inherited from a parent, arise spontaneously during cell division, or be triggered by environmental factors. In cancer biology, mutations that disable tumor-suppressor genes or activate growth-promoting genes are a central driver of malignancy.

Genetic counseling is a process in which a trained specialist — a genetic counselor — helps you understand genetic information relevant to your health, including what a test can and cannot tell you, how to interpret results, and what your options are once results are known. It is typically offered before and after genetic testing for inherited cancer risk.

Genetic testing examines your DNA — usually from a blood or saliva sample — to look for specific changes (mutations) in genes that are associated with inherited conditions or elevated disease risk. In cancer care, it is most commonly used to identify mutations in genes like BRCA1, BRCA2, and others linked to hereditary breast, ovarian, and colorectal cancer syndromes.

In oncology, grade describes how much cancer cells differ from normal, healthy cells when examined under a microscope. Low-grade (well-differentiated) tumors look relatively similar to normal tissue and tend to grow slowly; high-grade (poorly differentiated) tumors look very abnormal and tend to grow and spread more aggressively. Grade is distinct from stage, which describes how far a cancer has spread.

Heart failure is a chronic condition in which the heart muscle is weakened or stiffened and cannot pump blood as effectively as the body requires. Despite the alarming name, it does not mean the heart has stopped — it means the heart is struggling to keep up with demand, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, shortness of breath, and fluid buildup in the legs and lungs.

HER2 is a protein receptor found on the surface of cells that promotes cell growth and division. In approximately 15 to 20 percent of breast cancers, the gene that codes for HER2 is amplified — producing abnormally high levels of the protein — which drives aggressive tumor growth. HER2-positive breast cancer is distinct from hormone receptor–positive cancer but is increasingly treatable with targeted therapies.

A hormone receptor is a protein found inside or on the surface of a cell that recognizes and binds a specific hormone, translating that chemical signal into changes in cell behavior. In breast cancer, the presence or absence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) is a critical diagnostic finding that shapes treatment decisions and prognosis.

Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) uses medications containing estrogen, progesterone, or both to relieve symptoms caused by the natural drop in hormone levels during perimenopause and menopause. It can reduce hot flashes, improve sleep, and protect bone density, though it also carries risks that vary by individual health history.

HPV, or human papillomavirus, is a large family of viruses transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, most often during sexual activity. Most HPV infections clear on their own, but certain high-risk strains can cause cervical cancer, as well as cancers of the vagina, vulva, anus, throat, and penis. Vaccination and regular Pap and HPV testing are the most effective tools for prevention and early detection.

Hypertension means that the force of blood pushing against your artery walls is consistently too high. It rarely causes symptoms on its own, which is why it is called the 'silent killer,' but over years it damages blood vessels, increases the risk of heart attack and stroke, and can affect kidney function. Lifestyle changes and medication can control it effectively.

A hysterectomy is a surgical procedure that removes the uterus. It may be performed to treat conditions such as uterine fibroids, endometriosis, uterine prolapse, chronic pelvic pain, or uterine, cervical, or ovarian cancer. Depending on the reason for surgery, the procedure may also involve removing the cervix, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries.

Immunotherapy is a category of cancer treatment that uses or strengthens the body's natural immune defenses to recognize and attack cancer cells. Unlike chemotherapy, which directly kills rapidly dividing cells, immunotherapy works by training or activating immune cells. It is now used for several cancer types, including some breast cancers, and is often combined with other treatments.

In situ describes a condition in which abnormal or cancerous cells are present but have not grown beyond the tissue layer where they originated. In breast pathology, the two main in-situ diagnoses are ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS). Because the cells have not yet invaded surrounding tissue, in-situ conditions are generally considered earlier and more treatable than invasive cancers.

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a rare but fast-moving form of breast cancer in which cancer cells block the lymph vessels in the skin of the breast, causing the breast to look red, swollen, and feel warm — symptoms that can easily be mistaken for an infection. IBC accounts for a small percentage of breast cancers but tends to be diagnosed at a more advanced stage and requires prompt, aggressive treatment.

Invasive breast cancer refers to cancer that has broken through the walls of the milk ducts or lobules and grown into the surrounding breast tissue. Unlike in-situ cancers, invasive breast cancers have the potential to reach lymph nodes and other organs. Invasive ductal carcinoma and invasive lobular carcinoma are the two most common types.

Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) is the most frequently diagnosed type of breast cancer, accounting for the majority of cases. It begins in the cells lining the milk ducts and grows through the duct walls into the surrounding breast tissue. IDC can vary widely in its characteristics — including grade, hormone receptor status, and HER2 status — which shape its behavior and treatment.

Ki-67 is a protein found in the nucleus of cells that are actively dividing. Pathologists measure it in tumor samples to assess the proliferation rate — essentially, how fast the cancer is growing. A high Ki-67 score indicates a rapidly dividing tumor; a low score suggests slower growth. This information helps oncologists choose appropriate treatments and gauge likely outcomes.

Laparoscopy is a surgical approach in which a small camera (laparoscope) and specialized instruments are inserted through tiny incisions in the abdomen, allowing the surgeon to see and operate on internal organs without a large open incision. It is used for both diagnosis and treatment of gynecologic conditions including endometriosis, ovarian cysts, fibroids, and ectopic pregnancy.

LCIS, or lobular carcinoma in situ, refers to the presence of abnormal cells in the lobules — the milk-producing glands of the breast. Unlike DCIS, LCIS is not considered a true cancer or a direct precursor, but rather a marker indicating that a woman has a higher-than-average risk of developing invasive breast cancer in the future, in either breast.

A lesion is a broad medical term for any region of tissue that has been damaged, changed, or is otherwise abnormal compared to the surrounding tissue. Lesions can be caused by injury, infection, inflammation, or abnormal cell growth — including cancer. The word itself carries no implication about severity; a lesion may be entirely benign or require further investigation.

Lobular carcinoma refers to abnormal cell growth originating in the lobules — the glandular structures in the breast that produce milk. It includes both lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS), a risk indicator in which abnormal cells remain within the lobules, and invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC), the second most common type of invasive breast cancer, in which cancer cells have broken out of the lobules into surrounding tissue.

A lumpectomy is a surgical procedure that removes a breast tumor along with a rim of healthy tissue around it, leaving the rest of the breast intact. It is also called breast-conserving surgery or wide local excision. For many women with early-stage breast cancer, lumpectomy followed by radiation provides equivalent survival outcomes to mastectomy while preserving the breast.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped glands distributed throughout the body along the lymphatic vessels. They filter lymph fluid and contain immune cells that help fight infection and cancer. In breast cancer, whether cancer cells have reached the lymph nodes — particularly those in the underarm (axilla) — is one of the most important factors in staging and treatment planning.

Lymphedema is swelling that occurs when lymphatic fluid cannot drain properly and accumulates in the tissues. In women who have had breast cancer treatment — particularly surgery or radiation involving the underarm lymph nodes — lymphedema most commonly develops in the arm, hand, or chest on the treated side. It is a chronic condition, but it can be effectively managed with proper care.

Lymphoma is a type of cancer that starts in lymphocytes — the white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system — and typically involves the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, or bone marrow. It is divided into two main categories: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Lymphoma is one of the more treatable forms of cancer, particularly when caught at an early stage.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a diagnostic imaging technique that uses powerful magnets and radio waves — not radiation — to produce detailed, cross-sectional images of organs and soft tissues. It provides information that X-rays and CT scans often cannot, making it particularly valuable for imaging the brain, spine, breasts, and pelvic organs.

Malignant describes a tumor or growth made up of cancer cells that can invade nearby tissue and travel to distant parts of the body through the blood or lymphatic system. Unlike benign growths, malignant tumors do not stay contained and can cause serious harm if untreated.

A mammogram is the actual X-ray picture taken of your breast tissue during a mammography exam. Radiologists study these images for signs of cancer, calcifications, or other changes. Mammograms are one of the most effective tools available for finding breast cancer early, when it is most treatable.

Mammography is the process of using low-dose X-rays to image the inside of the breast. It is the gold-standard screening tool for detecting breast cancer early and is also used to evaluate suspicious areas found during a clinical or self-exam. The images produced are called mammograms.

In cancer surgery, a margin is the ring of normal tissue surrounding the tumor that is removed along with it. A pathologist measures and examines the margins to determine whether cancer cells extend to the edges of what was taken out. Clear margins mean no cancer was found at the outer edges; positive margins mean cancer cells were detected at the boundary.

A mastectomy is an operation to remove all or most of the breast tissue. It is performed to treat breast cancer when breast-conserving surgery is not appropriate, or to significantly reduce risk in people with a high genetic risk such as BRCA mutations. Several types of mastectomy exist, ranging from simple removal to skin-sparing and nipple-sparing techniques.

Mastitis is an inflammation of breast tissue that often involves a bacterial infection. It most commonly affects women who are breastfeeding, causing breast pain, swelling, warmth, and redness, sometimes accompanied by fever and flu-like symptoms. It is treated with antibiotics and continued breastfeeding or milk expression.

Menopause is defined as the point when a woman has gone 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period, marking the end of reproductive years. It typically occurs in the late 40s to early 50s and is a natural biological transition, though the years leading up to it — perimenopause — can bring a wide range of symptoms caused by shifting hormone levels.

Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells break away from the original tumor, travel through the blood or lymphatic system, and form new tumors in distant organs or tissues. A cancer that has metastasized is called metastatic. Common sites for breast cancer metastasis include the bones, lungs, liver, and brain.

Microcalcifications are very small calcium deposits in breast tissue — too small to feel — that show up as tiny white specks on a mammogram. Their size, shape, and clustering pattern help radiologists determine whether they are likely benign or warrant further investigation. Certain patterns are associated with early breast cancer, particularly DCIS.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks myelin, the protective sheath covering nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord. This disrupts the electrical signals nerves use to communicate, causing a wide range of neurological symptoms. MS affects approximately 2.8 million people worldwide and is more common in women.

Myelin is a fatty, white substance that wraps around the axons of nerve cells, forming a sheath that speeds up and protects electrical nerve signals. In multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks and destroys myelin, disrupting communication between the brain and the rest of the body. Myelin can regenerate to some extent, but repeated damage can lead to permanent nerve fiber loss.

A needle biopsy is a procedure in which a doctor uses a hollow needle to remove a small amount of tissue or fluid from a suspicious area in the body. The sample is then examined by a pathologist under a microscope. Needle biopsy is less invasive than surgical biopsy and is the standard first approach for evaluating breast lumps and abnormalities seen on imaging.

Needle localization is a procedure performed before breast surgery to mark the exact location of an abnormality — such as a cluster of microcalcifications or a small mass — that cannot be felt by hand. A thin wire or other marker is inserted into the breast using imaging guidance so that the surgeon can locate and remove the precise area during the operation.

Neoadjuvant therapy refers to treatment — most often chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or hormone therapy — given before the primary surgical procedure to remove a tumor. In breast cancer, the goal is usually to shrink a large tumor enough to allow breast-conserving surgery, or to see how the cancer responds to a particular drug regimen before surgery.

Neuropathy refers to damage or dysfunction of the peripheral nerves — the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that carry signals to and from the limbs and organs. Common symptoms include tingling, numbness, burning pain, or weakness, often starting in the hands and feet. In women's health, neuropathy is frequently encountered as a side effect of chemotherapy or as a feature of multiple sclerosis.

Nipple discharge refers to fluid that comes from the nipple when a woman is not pregnant or breastfeeding. It is a common breast symptom with many possible causes, most of which are benign. However, certain types of discharge — particularly spontaneous, bloody, or coming from one duct in one breast — warrant medical evaluation to rule out an underlying condition.

Node negative means that cancer cells were not found in the lymph nodes examined during surgery or biopsy. In breast cancer, this most often refers to the axillary (underarm) lymph nodes. Node-negative status is a favorable prognostic sign, generally indicating the cancer is less likely to have spread beyond the breast at the time of diagnosis.

Node positive means that cancer cells were found in one or more of the lymph nodes examined during surgery or biopsy. In breast cancer, this typically refers to the axillary (underarm) nodes. Node-positive status affects cancer staging and often influences decisions about the scope of surgery, radiation, and systemic treatments such as chemotherapy.

Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty that uses tiny amounts of radioactive substances called tracers to create images showing how organs and tissues are functioning, not just what they look like structurally. In women's health and oncology, nuclear medicine scans such as PET scans, bone scans, and sentinel lymph node procedures play important roles in diagnosing and staging disease.

An oncologist is a physician who focuses on cancer care — from diagnosis through treatment and follow-up. Depending on their specialty, they may use surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapies to treat tumors in various parts of the body.

An oophorectomy is the surgical removal of one ovary (unilateral) or both ovaries (bilateral). It may be performed to treat ovarian cysts, cancer, endometriosis, or to reduce cancer risk in women with certain genetic mutations, such as BRCA1 or BRCA2.

Osteopenia describes bone mineral density that is below the normal range for a young adult but not low enough to be classified as osteoporosis. It's considered a warning stage — bones are weaker than ideal, but the risk of fracture is lower than with full osteoporosis, and bone loss can often be slowed or reversed.

Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones lose density and structural strength, making them porous and prone to breaking — sometimes from a minor fall or even routine movement. It affects millions of people, most commonly postmenopausal women, and is often called a "silent" disease because it causes no symptoms until a fracture occurs.

Ovarian cancer refers to malignant tumors that originate in the ovaries, the almond-shaped organs that produce eggs and hormones. It is one of the more challenging gynecologic cancers because it frequently causes vague symptoms in early stages, and no reliable screening test yet exists for women at average risk.

Ovulation is the process by which one of the ovaries releases a mature egg, typically once per menstrual cycle. The egg then travels down the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized. Ovulation is triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) and usually occurs around the midpoint of a 28-day cycle.

A Pap smear — also called a Pap test — is a screening procedure in which a small sample of cells is collected from the cervix and examined under a microscope for abnormalities. It is one of the most effective cancer-prevention tools available, capable of detecting precancerous changes years before cervical cancer would develop.

Pathology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study and diagnosis of disease through laboratory analysis. When a biopsy or surgical specimen is sent to the pathology lab, a specialist called a pathologist examines it microscopically to determine whether cells are normal, precancerous, or malignant, and to characterize what type of cancer is present.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common hormonal disorders in women of reproductive age, affecting an estimated 1 in 10. It involves an imbalance of reproductive hormones that can disrupt ovulation, cause irregular periods, raise androgen (male hormone) levels, and produce small follicle cysts on the ovaries. PCOS also carries links to insulin resistance and long-term metabolic health.

Perimenopause is the years-long transition before menopause during which the ovaries gradually produce less estrogen and progesterone. Periods may become irregular, and many women experience symptoms such as hot flashes, sleep disruption, mood changes, and vaginal dryness. It typically begins in the mid-40s but can start earlier.

A PET (positron emission tomography) scan is a type of nuclear medicine imaging that maps metabolic activity in the body. By injecting a small amount of radioactive glucose into the bloodstream, the scan reveals which tissues are consuming energy at higher rates — a hallmark of cancer cells, which tend to use glucose more aggressively than normal tissue.

In cardiovascular medicine, plaque refers to deposits that accumulate inside artery walls, composed of cholesterol, fatty substances, calcium, and cellular waste. As plaque builds up, it narrows and hardens the arteries — a process called atherosclerosis — which can reduce blood flow to the heart, brain, and other organs and raise the risk of heart attack and stroke.

A Port-a-Cath (or implanted port) is a small medical device placed surgically under the skin of the chest, connected to a large vein. It allows medications like chemotherapy, fluids, and blood products to be delivered directly into the bloodstream through a simple needle stick into the port, sparing peripheral veins from repeated punctures.

Progesterone is a steroid hormone produced primarily by the ovaries after ovulation. It prepares the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to receive a fertilized egg and, if pregnancy occurs, helps maintain it in the early stages. Progesterone levels rise and fall throughout the menstrual cycle and decline significantly during perimenopause and menopause.

A progesterone receptor (PR) is a protein found inside certain cells that binds to the hormone progesterone and triggers a cellular response. In breast cancer, testing whether tumor cells carry progesterone receptors — reported as PR-positive (PR+) or PR-negative (PR−) — is a standard part of diagnosis that helps determine which treatments are most likely to be effective.

Prolactin is a hormone released by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain. It is best known for triggering and sustaining milk production after childbirth, but it also plays a role in regulating the menstrual cycle. Abnormally high prolactin levels (hyperprolactinemia) can disrupt ovulation, cause irregular or absent periods, and sometimes lead to nipple discharge in people who are not breastfeeding.

A prophylactic mastectomy is the surgical removal of one or both breasts performed not to treat existing cancer, but to dramatically reduce the future risk of developing it. It is most often considered by women with high-risk BRCA gene mutations, a strong family history, or other factors that give them a significantly elevated lifetime breast cancer risk.

A pulmonary embolism occurs when a blood clot — most often formed in a deep leg vein — breaks free, travels through the bloodstream, and lodges in one of the arteries supplying the lungs. It is a medical emergency that requires prompt treatment to restore blood flow and oxygen delivery.

Radiation therapy uses focused beams of high-energy radiation — most often X-rays — to damage the DNA inside cancer cells so they can no longer divide and grow. It may be used alone or alongside surgery and chemotherapy, depending on the type and stage of cancer being treated.

A radiologist is a medical doctor who has completed specialized training in interpreting imaging studies — such as mammograms, MRIs, CT scans, and ultrasounds — to detect disease and guide treatment decisions. Radiologists typically work behind the scenes, analyzing images and communicating findings to your primary care physician or specialist.

Receptor-positive breast cancer means the cancer cells have surface proteins — receptors — that bind to hormones such as estrogen or progesterone and use them to fuel growth. This status is determined by pathology testing of a biopsy sample and is important because receptor-positive cancers can often be treated with hormone-blocking therapies.

Recurrence means that cancer has come back after it appeared to be gone or under control. It can return in the same location as the original tumor (local recurrence), in nearby tissue or lymph nodes (regional recurrence), or in a distant part of the body (distant recurrence or metastasis). Continued monitoring after treatment is designed specifically to detect recurrence early.

Relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) is characterized by clearly defined attacks — called relapses or exacerbations — during which new or worsening neurological symptoms appear, followed by periods of partial or complete recovery (remission). It is the most common course of MS at the time of diagnosis, affecting roughly 85 percent of people newly diagnosed.

Remission means that the signs and symptoms of cancer have decreased significantly or cannot be detected by current tests and scans. A partial remission indicates a major reduction in the cancer, while a complete remission means no cancer can be found. Remission does not always mean the cancer is permanently gone — it means treatment has worked and close monitoring continues.

A risk factor is anything — a personal characteristic, a behavior, a family history, or an environmental exposure — that raises the statistical likelihood that a person will develop a specific disease. Having one or more risk factors does not mean you will definitely get a disease; it means your probability is higher compared to someone without those factors.

A saline implant is a breast implant made of a silicone outer shell filled with sterile saltwater (saline solution). They are used in breast reconstruction following mastectomy and in cosmetic breast augmentation. Saline implants can be filled to a specific volume during surgery, and if they rupture, the saline is safely absorbed by the body.

A salpingo-oophorectomy is surgery to remove one or both ovaries along with the fallopian tube on the same side. When both sides are removed, it is called a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO). The procedure may be performed to treat ovarian cancer or cysts, endometriosis, or as a preventive measure in women with high-risk BRCA gene mutations.

Medical screening refers to tests or exams given to people who have no symptoms, with the goal of detecting disease — or conditions that could lead to disease — at the earliest possible stage, when treatment is most effective. Common examples include mammograms for breast cancer, Pap smears for cervical cancer, and bone density scans for osteoporosis.

The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node — or small group of nodes — that drains fluid from the area of a tumor. If cancer is going to spread through the lymphatic system, it would most likely appear here first. Surgeons sample this node to determine whether the cancer has begun to travel, using the result to guide further treatment decisions.

A silicone implant is a breast prosthesis made of a silicone outer shell filled with silicone gel. They are used in breast reconstruction after mastectomy and in cosmetic augmentation. Silicone gel implants are generally considered to feel more similar to natural breast tissue than saline implants, though they require periodic MRI monitoring to check for silent rupture.

A sonogram is the picture produced when high-frequency sound waves are directed into the body and their echoes are converted into an image by a computer. The terms sonogram and ultrasound are commonly used interchangeably. Sonograms are widely used in breast imaging, obstetrics, abdominal assessment, and many other diagnostic settings.

Staging is the process of determining how large a cancer is and whether it has spread to nearby lymph nodes or other parts of the body. The result — typically expressed as stage I through IV — tells your care team how advanced the cancer is, which directly guides treatment planning and helps predict how the disease is likely to behave.

Stenosis refers to the narrowing of a blood vessel, heart valve, or other hollow structure in the body. When a vessel narrows, blood flow through it becomes restricted, which can reduce the supply of oxygen and nutrients to downstream tissues. Stenosis in arteries supplying the heart or brain is a common contributor to heart attack and stroke.

Stereotactic biopsy is a minimally invasive procedure that uses two angled mammogram X-ray images to calculate the exact three-dimensional location of a suspicious area — such as microcalcifications — in the breast. A needle is then guided to that precise point to remove tissue samples for pathology review, avoiding the need for open surgery.

A stress fracture is a small crack or severe bruising within a bone caused by repetitive activity or force over time. Unlike a traumatic fracture from a single impact, stress fractures develop gradually when muscles become fatigued and can no longer absorb shock, transferring that stress directly to the bone.

A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is suddenly interrupted — either by a blockage (ischemic stroke) or by a burst blood vessel (hemorrhagic stroke). Without oxygen-rich blood, brain cells begin to die within minutes, making stroke a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment.

A T-score is a number generated by a DEXA bone density scan that tells you how your bone density compares to the average peak bone density of a healthy young adult of the same sex. It is the primary measure used to diagnose osteoporosis and osteopenia in postmenopausal women and older men.

Tamoxifen is an oral medication that blocks estrogen from binding to cancer cells, slowing or stopping the growth of hormone-receptor-positive breast cancers. It has been used for decades both to treat breast cancer and, in high-risk individuals, to help reduce the chance that breast cancer will develop in the first place.

Thermography uses a specialized infrared camera to create a heat map of the body's surface, detecting differences in skin temperature that may reflect activity in underlying tissue. While it has been studied as a potential breast cancer screening tool, it is not currently recognized as a replacement for or equivalent to mammography.

A tissue expander is a temporary implant placed beneath the chest muscle after a mastectomy. Over the following weeks or months, saline is gradually injected into it through a small port to slowly stretch the skin and muscle, creating a pocket large enough to accommodate a permanent breast implant.

Trastuzumab (brand name Herceptin) is a monoclonal antibody — a laboratory-made protein — designed to attach to the HER2 receptor on cancer cells. By blocking this receptor, it slows the growth of HER2-positive breast cancers and helps the immune system identify and attack those cells.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is defined by what it lacks: the estrogen receptor, the progesterone receptor, and the HER2 protein are all absent or low on the cancer cells. Because none of these targets are present, hormone-blocking drugs and HER2-targeted therapies do not work for TNBC — but chemotherapy and newer immunotherapy options remain effective.

A tumor is an abnormal growth of cells that forms a lump or mass. Tumors can be benign (non-cancerous), meaning they grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body, or malignant (cancerous), meaning they can invade nearby tissue and potentially spread elsewhere. The word itself simply means swelling.

A tumor marker is a substance — often a protein — that can be measured in blood, urine, or tissue and that is produced by cancer cells or by the body in response to cancer. Tumor markers are used to help diagnose certain cancers, monitor treatment response, and watch for recurrence, though they are rarely used as standalone diagnostic tests.

Ultrasound imaging uses high-frequency sound waves — far above what the human ear can detect — to create real-time images of internal structures. It is widely used to examine the breast, abdomen, pelvis, heart, and blood vessels, and it is the standard imaging tool in obstetrics for monitoring pregnancy.

Uterine cancer refers to malignant tumors that develop in the uterus. The vast majority are endometrial cancers, arising in the endometrium — the inner lining of the uterus — and they are the most common gynecologic cancer in the United States. Less common is uterine sarcoma, which develops in the muscle wall of the uterus.

Uterine fibroids are noncancerous tumors made of muscle and fibrous tissue that grow in or on the walls of the uterus. They are extremely common — affecting up to 80% of women by age 50 — and many women have them without ever knowing. When symptoms do occur, they may include heavy periods, pelvic pressure, or frequent urination.

Vascular disease refers to a range of conditions that affect the network of blood vessels throughout the body. These vessels carry blood to and from every organ, and when they are damaged, blocked, or weakened, the consequences can range from leg pain and poor wound healing to heart attack and stroke.

A well-woman exam is a preventive health visit — typically annual — that focuses on screenings, vaccinations, and health conversations relevant to women at different life stages. It often includes a pelvic exam, Pap smear (when indicated), breast exam, blood pressure check, and discussion of reproductive health, mental health, and lifestyle factors.

An X-ray is a type of electromagnetic radiation that passes through soft tissue but is absorbed by denser materials like bone and metal. When directed through the body onto a detector or film, it creates an image that reveals the internal structure — most clearly bones, but also lung tissue, calcifications, and some foreign objects.

A Z-score is a number from a DEXA bone density scan that compares your bone density to the average for people your own age, sex, and body size. Unlike the T-score — which compares you to young adults at peak bone density — the Z-score helps determine whether your bone density is unusual relative to your peers, which can signal an underlying secondary cause of bone loss.